The highly secular and all-encompassing
philosophy of
Hinduism is ever-evolving. Adopting
religious views of innumerable schools of thought and adapting rapidly to
the changing times, it is known to be one of the dynamic systems of
philosophy and religions in the world. Hence, Hinduism is not merely a
religion or a philosophy - it is veritably a way of life. Its teachings
are relevant then, now and forever.
Hinduism discusses all aspects of life and living, giving followers
practical and workable tips on living a peaceful, joyful and prosperous
life, without putting in too much effort into it all. According to the
philosophy, self-realization is the key to understanding the secrets of
life and, ultimately, living a life full of peace and joy.
This concept of self-realization; the understanding of reality and
decoding the "I" factor, gave rise to three main streams of philosophy,
which now make up the entire fabric of Hindu thought as a whole. These
three sub-schools of Vedanta or Vedantic thought constitute Advaita,
Dvaita and Visishtadvaita. Simply put; the basic difference between the
three Vedantas lies in the way they define the concept of reality and
nature.
All Vedantic philosophies are based on Prasthaanatrayi, or the three
axioms of Vedanta, as follows:
1.
The Upanishads,
known as Upadesha Prasthana and the Sruti Prasthana
2.
The Brahma Sutras, also known as Nyasa Prasthana or
Yukti Prasthana
3.
The Bhagavad
Gita, also known as Sadhana Prasthana and the Smriti
Prasthana
All the three Vedantas rely on these Prasthanas. The scriptures deal in
detail with the relationship between Brahma (the Ultimate Reality), Atman
(the Individual Soul) and Jagat (the World). They also advise the follower
on the path to be taken in order to attain moksha (salvation) from Samsara
(bondage from this material world). The main difference between these
schools of thought arises because the Prasthanatrayi talks about both the
Brahman with attributes (Saguna) and the Brahman without attributes
(Nirguna).
Three great Hindu saints and seers were primarily responsible for
propagating these schools of Vedanta. They were as follows:
- Adi Shankaracharya for Advaita
- Madhvacharya for Dvaita
- Ramanujacharya for Visishtadvaita
In this post, we bring you the lives and times of the above-mentioned
saints, also discussing each of their philosophies.
Adi Shankara was an early 8th century philosopher and theologian, who
propagated the Vedanta of Advaita. Shankara was a great seer, who was
responsible for unifying and establishing the main tenets of Hinduism.
Birth
One can find several biographies charting out the life of Adi Shankara.
Some were written many centuries to a thousand years after Shankara's
Samadhi. Available in both Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit languages, they are
filled with legends and tales; many, which contradict each other.
Sringeri records mention that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the
reign of Vikramaditya. However, it is unclear as to exactly which king
this record refers to. Some scholars aver that it was mostly Vikramaditya
II. The most popularly accepted date is from the first half of the 18th
century. Shankara was born at Kalady, a town located in Angamaly, Kerala.
He was born to Namboodiri Brahmin parents.
Life
Shankara's father expired while he was very young. Hence, the boy's
Upanayanam (thread ceremony) had to be delayed and was later performed by
his mother. Shankara was attracted to the life of a Sannyasa (hermit) from
a very young age. His mother, though, disapproved of this inclination of
her son.
According to legend, at the age of eight, Shankara and his mother went to
River Sivataraka to bathe. When he went into the water, he was caught by a
crocodile. He called out to his mother to give him permission to become a
Sannyasin. He said the crocodile would end up killing him otherwise. The
mother had no choice except to give in. The boy then left home to pursue
his education.
Traveling for some time, he reached a Saivite sanctuary, situated along
the banks of a river. There, he met a teacher named Govinda Bhagavatpada
and became his disciple. Some accounts suggest that the school was located
by the Narmada in Omkareshwar. Others narrate that the place was along the
Ganges in Kashi as well as
Badrinath
in the Himalayas. Most biographies relate that Shankara studied the Vedas,
Upanishads and Brahmasutras under his Guru. He also had the opportunity to
meet several scholars of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism, such as Kumarila
and Prabhakara, as well as several Buddhists.
Shankara Returns Home
As per some accounts, Adi Shankara was returning from Kashi, when he came
to know that his mother had taken seriously ill. He came back home to look
after her in her last days. By way of his divine powers, he gave her a
vision of Lord
Shiva.
She, however, became fearful looking at the Lord. Then Shankara prayed to
Lord Narayana to grant her moksha. Seeing Vishnu's form, the old lady
calmed down, prayed to him and peacefully breathed her last.
Shankara wanted to perform his mother's last rites as he had promised her
earlier. However, the locals opposed this, saying that a Sannyasi should
not perform last rites. They further refused to offer him firewood for
cremating her. Shankara then laid her on the fresh bark of plantain trees
that he procured from their own backyard, lighted it and prayed to Lord
Agni
(God of Fire) to consume her. Agni obliged Shankara and consumed the
plantain bark, which is usually non-combustible.
Overwhelmed by the incidents, Adi Shankara instantly composed the
Maatru-Panchakam, a set of 5 verses, glorifying the greatness of
motherhood. He thus defied all customs, stating than nothing and no one
could ever be greater than a mother.
Legends relate that thereafter, Shankara undertook many pilgrimages, took
part in public debates and installed several
lingas
and even founded monastic centers all over India.
Tours and Travels
Over the next years, Adi Shankara traveled widely within India. It is
believed that ten monasteries were founded by him, each following the
principles of Advaita Vedanta, which he actively propagated. Out of these,
four still continue with this tradition. They include Bharati (Sringeri),
Saraswati (Kanchi) and Tirtha and Asramin (Dwaraka). He had a number of
disciples, including Padmapada (also called Sanandana), Sureshwara,
Tothaka, Citsukha, Brahmendra and many more. Some of the most prominent
disciples authored works on Shankara and Advaita.
Shankaracharya's detailed works in Sanskrit discuss the united nature of
the Atman and the Nirguna Brahman. He shunned all types of ritualistic
philosophies, also highlighting the key differences between Hinduism and
Buddhism.
He firmly stated that, in Hinduism, the Atman existed, whereas, in
Buddhism, there was no concept of Self or Soul.
He further talked about the importance of monastic life and tirelessly
worked to spread his unique philosophy of Advaita, thus being known as the
greatest revivalist. He soon came to be famous as Adi Shankaracharya,
Shankara Bhagavadpada and Shankara Bhagavadpadacharya.
Death
Adi Shankara is believed to have attained Samadhi at the age of 32, at
Kedarnath in Uttarakhand, which is an important pilgrimage site for
Hindus. According to texts, his students last saw him walking on the
mountains of the Himalayas. Suddenly, he disappeared and could not be
traced. Some texts relate that he shed his mortal coil in locales such as
Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu and somewhere in the state of Kerala.
Philosophical Works
Shankara is most known for his Bhashyas (systematic reviews and
commentaries) on ancient Indian treatises. The Brahmasutrabhashya was his
foremost work and went on to become a fundamental text of the Vedanta
school of Hinduism. His commentaries on ten Mukhya Upanishads are also
considered to be important. Other works include commentaries on the
Bhagavad Gita and his Vivarana on the commentary by Vedavyasa on
Yogasutras and the Apasthamba-Dharma sutras.
8 Upanishadas - with Commentary of
Sankaracharya
Book Set of 2 Volumes
In the Stotra (poetic works) category, Adi
Shankara is attributed as the author of Daksinamurti Stotra, the
Bhajagovinda Stotra, the Sivanandalahari, the Carpata-panjarika, the
Visnu-satpadi, the Harimide, the Dasa-shloki, and the Krishnashtaka.
Shankaracharya also authored Upadesasahasri, which is his most important
work. Other than the original Prakaranas, seventy six works were
attributed to the Acharya.
Shankara's stotras include hymns dedicated to both
Krishna
(Vaishnavism) and Shiva (Shaivism). These two are usually considered as
two entirely different sects within Hinduism. However, the Advaitic nature
of his philosophy tried to propagate a universal, unified view of Vedanta.
Advaita Vedanta
- Adi Shankara systematized the works of his predecessors. His Advaita
(non-dualism) philosophy postulates that the Atman is but one with the
Brahman. According to him, the Atman is unchanging, while other
changing realities are not absolute. Advaita Vedanta is based on
shastra (scriptures), yukti (reasoning) and anubhava (experience).
Shankaracharya's thinking was that a Jivanmukta (one liberated during
the course of his lifetime) would be self-realized and would be aware
of Oneness of Self and the Universal Spirit.
- The Acharya averred that, while the practice of Yoga
would be helpful, it would not be able to gaining moksha. The follower
would have to deeply study the Upanishads and delve into their real
meaning. To Shankara, the study of the Upanishads was the necessary
and sufficient means to attain moksha. He also stressed on the
presence of the Guru to impart the necessary knowledge.
- The world, though not unreal, is illusory once the perception of the
highest Brahman is attained. This knowledge can be attained by
following the four-fold path of Viveka (discrimination); Vairagya
(detachment); Sama, Dama and Shraddha (calmness, self-control and
patience) and Mumukshutva (constant yearning to attain liberation).
- Bhakti or Devotion is only one step to attain the grace of God. This
would be the first step to understand the non-dualistic nature of the
Jeevatma and the Paramatma.
While Shankara's Vedanta is similar to Mahayana Buddhism, the main
difference is that Hinduism believes in the existence of Atman - something
that is completely absent in the latter.
Influence on Hinduism
Shankara's philosophy and teachings form the basis of Smartism and have
influence Sant Mat lineages. He introduced the Panchayatana path of
worship - the worship of five deities, namely, Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu,
Shiva and Devi. He explained that all these deities were but forms of the
One Eternal Brahman. Though many seers had tried to propagate Advaita
earlier, it was only after Adi Shankaracharya that it became the
systematized Vedanta that it is today.
Shankaracharya reformed Smartas and revived the tradition. He not only
fought to wipe out the orthodoxy and the varnasrama dharma theory they had
followed till then; but he also encouraged them to follow the practice of
panchayatanapuja, in order to unify the entire system as a whole.
Adi Shankaracharya's teachings have shaped much of the Hindu psyche and
continue to be as relevant even in today's modern world.
Madhvacharya - Dvaita Vedanta
Madhvacharya, also known as Purnaprajna and Ananda Teertha, was the main
proponent of the Dvaita (dualism) school of Vedanta. He referred to his
philosophy as Tatvavaada, meaning, "arguments from a realistic point of
view".
Birth
Madhva was born in Karnataka, in the 13th century. Right from his young
years, he was attracted towards spirituality. He entered Sannyasa when he
became a teenager. Joining Brahma-sampradaya guru Achyutapreksha of the
Ekadandi order, he studied the Principal Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and
the Brahma Sutras (Prasthanatrayi). He then commented on these, also
penning thirty-seven works in Sanskrit.
His style of writing was clear and precise, without any ambiguity. The
Anuvyakhyana, a supplement to his Bhashya on the Brahma Sutras, is
considered to be his greatest ever work. This is composed in poetic form
and structure.
Over the years, he toured India several times, visiting Hindu centers of
learning and engaging in philosophical debates. He established the Krishna
Mutt at Udupi, installing a murti (idol) that he procured from Dwaraka in
Gujarat in 1285 CE.
Self-Proclamation as Vayu
In many of his works, he refers to himself as an avatara of Vayu, the Wind
God and the Son of Lord Vishnu. He thus compared himself to Hanuman and
Bhima, the strongest of the Pandava Princes in the
Mahabharata.
In one of his Bhashyas on the Brahma Sutra, he states that his experience
comes from an actual encounter he had with Lord Vishnu himself.
Life
As in Shankaracharya's case, the biography of Madhvacharya, too, is
unclear. Some sources date him to the period between 1238 and 1317. Some
others say he lived around 1199 to 1278.
Madhva was born in Pajaka near Udupi, a coastal district in present-day
Karnataka. It is believed that he was the son of Naddantillaya and
Vedavati, who were Tulu-speaking Vaishnavite Brahmins. He was named
Vasudeva at birth. He was conferred with the name Purnaprajna after his
initiation into sannyasa. When he became the head of his
monastery,
he was given the name Ananda Teertha. The names Madhva and Madhvacharya
can be mostly found in Dvaita Vedanta related works or in modern
literature on him.
Madhva began his schooling at the age of seven, after his Upanayana
(sacred thread ceremony). Though he studied Advaita Vedanta, he was not
convinced by the theory of non-dualism and had frequent debates on this
issue with his
Guru.
He then left the monastery and began his own Dvaita movement, based on the
principle of dualism. After that, he never referred to Achyutrapreksha as
his guru and also never spoke or wrote about his monastic lineage.
Several biographies have been written by Madhva's disciples. Of these, the
most popular one is the sixteenth cantos Sanskrit Madhvavijaya, penned by
Narayana Panditacharya, son of Trivikrama Pandita.
Philosophy
Madhva was a severe critic of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta (based on
non-dualism) and Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (based on qualified
non-dualism). His teachings are based on the premise that there is a
fundamental difference between the Atman and the Brahman. According to
him, the two are different unchanging realities, which can never be
identical. The individual soul, he stated, was dependent on the Brahman.
Moksha could be attained only and only by the grace of God. Madhava's
Dvaita Vedanta influenced Vaishnavism and the
Bhakti
movement in medieval India.
Literary Works
Madhva is credited with the creation of thirty seven Dvaita texts. Of
these, thirteen are Bhashyas on the Principal Upanishads, Brahma Sutras,
the Bhagavad Gita, a commentary on forty hymns of the Rigveda, a review of
the Mahabharata in poetic style and a commentary called
Bhagavata-tatparya-nirnaya, on the Bhagavata
Purana.
Madhvacharya restricted outsiders, who were not from the Dvaita school,
from accessing any of his work.
Dvaita Vedanta
- Madhva's epistemology, which he referred to as Anupramana, accepts
three paths to achieve the right type of knowledge. They are as
follows:
a. Pratyaksha - Meaning
"perception", it is of two types, namely, external and internal.
External perception arises from the interaction with the outer world and
the five senses; whereas, internal perception is attained from the inner
sense, the mind.
b. Anumana - This means "inference". It implies
reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or multiple observations
and previous truths, by applying practicality and reasoning. For
example, if one sees smoke, one can infer there is a fire. This Anumana
comprises three parts, namely, pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (reason) and
drishtanta (examples).
c. Shabda - Meaning "word", this relies on the
testimony of past or present experts. As per the Dvaita tradition, it is
also known as Agama and incorporates all the Vedas. According to this
principle, a human being needs to know innumerable facts. Using the
limited time and energy available to him, he can learn only a fraction
of these facts and truths.
- According to Madhva, the kevala-pramana or the "knowledge of an
object as it is" is separate from the Anupramana, mentioned above.
- Madhva's Dvaita Vedanta states that Vishnu is the Supreme Lord. He
can be attained only through proper samanvaya (connection) and
pramana. Vishnu is not the one who created the Vedas, but he is the
preceptor of the same. As stated by the Mimamsa school of Hindu
philosophy, Madhvacharya too believed that the Vedas are authorless
and they hold the ultimate truth in all their parts.
- Knowledge is the key to all, according to this philosophy. Moreover,
both the karma-kanda (ritual part) and the jnana-kanda (the knowledge
part) in the Vedas are equally important and are also interconnected.universe
- Madhva talked about the existence of two primary tattvas or
categories of reality, namely, svatanta tattva (independent reality)
and asvatantra tattva (dependent reality). According to the Acharya,
Ishwara (or the Lord)
is the cause of the universe and is the only independent reality.
The thus created is the dependent reality. This consists of Jiva
(individual souls) and Jada (material things). Jiva and Jada are all
distinct realities. They are also all different from one another. No
two souls and things are alike - each one is unique. All are full and
complete in themselves, yet, the completeness is different in each
case.
- Madhva further elaborated on the difference between the two tattvas
as a pancha-bheda or five-fold division, which are as follows:
a. Between material things
b. Between material things and the soul
c. Between material things and God
d. Between souls
e. Between souls and God
- Dvaita Vedanta states that the Brahman always enjoyed His own bliss,
while the entire creation was constantly evolving through a process of
chaos. The Brahman manifests once in a while, in order to help this
process of evolution. He takes the forms of Vasudeva, Pradyumna,
Aniruddha and Sankarsana - these forms are responsible for redemption,
creation, sustenance and destruction, respectively. All manifestations
are equal and is made up of the same infinite matter.
- In a major departure from the popular Hindu philosophy of "Tat tvam
asi" (Thou art That), Madhva's Dvaita school reinterpreted it, parsing
the text as "Atat tvam asi" (Thou art not That). In this way too, he
severely denied that the Jivatma and the Paramatma were the same.
- According to Madhva, Jnana Yoga and Karma Yoga were insufficient to
attain mukthi. The element of Bhakti (devotion) and total surrender
alone could help the devotee win the grace of the Lord, thus granting
him mukthi.
- Evil and suffering in this world, according to Dvaita Vedanta,
originates only in man. Every Jiva has the right to free will, but is
ultimately influenced by his sthayi (nature), inclinations and past
karma. He has the ability to choose between right and wrong and so, he
will take on the responsibility for it.
Views on Other Schools
Madhva severely criticized all other schools of Vedanta, such as Buddhism
and
Jainism.
He came down fiercely on Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita school, accusing
them of being "deceitful demons"; teaching Buddhism under the name of
Vedanta. He said that Advaita was a version of Mahayana Buddhism, which he
considered as nihilistic.
Such a severe critic was he that he wrote four major texts, including
Upadhikhandana and Tattvadyota, mainly aiming to undermine Advaita
Vedanta. Madhvacharya also strongly disagreed with Ramanuja's
Visishtadvaita Vedanta.
Influence on Hinduism
- Madhvacharya's influence led to the formation of the Haridasa sect
of Vaishnavism in Karnataka, which is also referred to as Vyasakuta,
Dasakuta or Dasa Dasapantha. They made a great contribution to the
Bhakti movement, with their beautiful and meaningful devotional songs.
- The Acharya's influence is most prominently seen on the Chaitanya
school of Bengal Vaishnavism and in Assam as well.
- A subsect of Gaudiya Vaishnavas from Orissa and West Bengal proclaim
themselves to be followers of Madhvacharya.
- The Acharya established eight Mutts in Udupi. They are called the
Madhva Mutts or Udupi Ashta Mutts. They are laid out in a rectangle
and surround the Anantheshwara Krishna temple. Incidentally, the
monks' studies and their course of succession (Paryaya system) were
also established by Madhva.
- There are twenty four other Madhva Mutts set up all over India. All
of them follow the procedures as stipulated by the Acharya in his
Tantrasara.
Ramanujacharya - Visishtadvaita Vedanta
Ramanujacharya
was yet another important exponent of the tradition of Vaishnavism. He was
born into a Tamil Brahmin family in the village of Sriperumbudur, Tamil
Nadu. His philosophy highly influenced the Bhakti movement. He is also
known by names such as Sri Ramanujacharya, Udaiyavar, Ethiraajar,
Bhashyakarar, Godaagrajar, Thiruppavai Jeeyar, Emberumaanaar and Lakshmana
Muni.
Ramanuja's most important contribution to Hinduism was his establishment
of the Visishtadvaita (qualified monism) Vedanta. According to this school
of philosophy, there exists plurality and distinction between Atman and
Brahman. However, he also asserted that there is a unity of all souls and
that each individual soul has the potential to become one with the Supreme
Brahman.
Ramanuja - Papier Mache Statue
Life
The complete details of Ramanuja's birth are unknown. However, some
records indicate that he was born between 1017-1137 CE, to Kanthimathi and
Asuri Kesava Somayaji. He is believed to have been born in the month of
Chitra, under the Nakshatra (star) Thirvathirai. Yet other sources suggest
that Ramanuja may have lived between 1077-1157 CE. His followers wrote
hagiographies - some, several centuries after his Samadhi. Followers of
this sect believe them to be true.
One such hagiography suggests that Ramanuja learned the Vedas when he was
merely eight days old. He is then believed to have communicated with God
as an adult and even won philosophical debates with Buddhists, Advaitins
and such. He is said to have turned himself to his "divine self", the
Seshanaga,
to defeat Buddhists. While his ardent followers completely believe these
legends, modern scholars and skeptics question the reliability of such
works. With no historical or other basis to justify these claims, it would
be impossible to accept them, they say.
Vishnu and Lakshmi with Sheshnaga - Brass
Statue
When he came of age, Ramanuja married and moved to Kanchipuram to study
Advaita Vedanta under his Guru, Yadava Prakasa. They both frequently
disagreed in interpreting texts, especially the Upanishads. After a while,
Ramanuja separated from his Guru and proceeded to study on his own. He
preferred to follow in the footsteps of the Alvar tradition and the famed
scholars, Nathamuni and Yamunacharya.
According to a legend, Ramanuja tried to meet Yamunacharya, but the latter
attained Samadhi just before that and so, they never met. However, it is
believed that the corpse of Yamunacharya miraculously rose and named
Ramanuja the new leader of the Vaishnava sect, which was, till then, led
by him. Some accounts suggest that after that, Ramanuja renounced his
married life and became a Sannyasi. However, there are no official records
to prove this theory.
Ramanuja then became a priest at the Varadharaja Perumal temple at
Kanchipuram, where he also began to conduct
spiritual
discourses. He began to teach that moksha was to be achieved not through
the nirguna Brahman, but with the help of one's personal God, the saguna
Vishnu.
Ramanuja grew up during the rule of the Chola dynasty. This period
witnessed the existence of pluralistic beliefs, where Saivism,
Vaishnavism, Smartism, Buddhism and Jainism thrived together. Advaita
Vedanta was the most prevalent philosophy at the time. The Vaishnava
Sampradaya was already well-established and the concept of bhakti was
gaining rapid momentum in South India.
In this milieu, Ramanuja gained popularity because he was the first
thinker who challenged Shankara's Advaitism and offered an alternative
interpretation of the Upanishads. Ramanuja and his disciples then lived in
the largely non-sectarian environment offered by the Chola Empire, till
its decline in the late 12th and 13th centuries. The Acharya also severely
revolted against the caste system and went as far as converting
untouchables into priests.
Writings
The Sri Vaishnava tradition attributes nine Sanskrit works to Ramanuja.
They include the Vedarthasangraha (a summary of the Vedas), Sri Bhashya (a
commentary on the Brahma Sutras), Bhagavad Gita Bhashya (a commentary on
the Bhagavad Gita), and minor works titled Vedantapida, Vedantasara,
Gadya Trayam (a compilation of three texts called the Saranagati Gadyam,
Sriranga Gadyam and Srivaikunta Gadyam) and Nitya Grantham. Some scholars
have questioned the validity of the author of these works.
Ramanujacharya's disciples included greats such as Kidambi Aachan,
Nadadhur Azhwan, Thirukurugai Piran Pillan, Muraliyandan, Koorathazhwan
and so on. Many of them are considered to be the authors of texts such as
the Shatyayaniya Upanishad.
Visishtadvaita Vedanta
Ramanuja established the Visishtadvaita Vedanta school of philosophical
thought; the foundation of which, was qualified monism.
He accepted that Vedas are a reliable source of knowledge and critiqued
the other two schools of Vedanta, namely, Advaita Vedanta and Dvaita
Vedanta, as having misinterpreted the Vedic texts. He strongly stated that
the purvapaksin (previous schools) only selectively support the
Upanishadic passages and ignore those that support the concept of
pluralism.
He said that the scriptures should always be considered in their totality
and not in parts. According to Ramanujacharya, the Vedas mention both
oneness and plurality and son, the truth must incorporate both monism and
pluralism. He called this qualified monism or Visishatadvaita Vedanta.
Similarities and Dissimilarities with the Other Vedantas
- Ramanuja's Visishtadvaita agrees with the theistic devotional aspect
of Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta. Both schools state that Jiva and
Brahman are totally different from each other and that this difference
can never be transcended. Both schools are of the view that Vishnu
alone is the independent reality and that all other Gods
and beings are dependent on him.
- In contrast to Dvaita Vedanta, though, Ramanuja's "qualified
non-dualism" states that souls share the same essential nature of the
Brahman; that all souls are the same; and that it is possible for
every soul to reach the bliss state of the Brahman himself. In sharp
contrast, Madhvacharya believed that souls would never ever be able to
reach the state of the Brahman.
- Visishtadvaita and Advaita schools both believe in non-dualism. Both
systems state that all souls can hope to achieve the blissful state of
the Brahman. Advaita posits that only the Brahman is the unchanging
reality, while everything else is relative, illusory and
ever-changing. Shankara states that the Atman can attain the Brahman
once it comprehends the truth and its actual nature of oneness with
the Universal Power.
- In contrast, Ramanuja states that both Brahman and the material
world are two different absolutes, both metaphysically real. According
to him, neither is false of illusory. All of the world matter
constitutes God's form and the path to the nirguna Brahman is through
devotion and maintaining constant love towards the personal God; the
saguna Brahman; no other than Vishnu Himself.
Influence on Hinduism
- Ramanujacharya was highly influential, as he developed a different
approach to Vedanta by giving the concept of bhakti an intellectual
basis. His Visishtadvaita Vedanta made bhakti the central aspect of
Hindu philosophy.
- Ramanuja undertook major tours and travels around India and
tirelessly propagated his philosophy, thereby far extending the reach
of his organization. He not only developed theories, but also
published philosophical texts and set up centers for the study of
Vedanta, during the time between the 11th and 12th centuries.
- The Acharya reformed the Ranganathaswamy Temple complex at Srirangam
and also organized a network of temples dedicated to Vishnu-Lakshmi
worship. His philosophy influenced several generations of poet saints
to further the Bhakti movement.
- The birthplace of Ramanujacharya houses a temple and an active
Visishtadvaita school as well. His monastery and temple traditions are
still followed the same way in the largest and most important
Vaishnava centers, namely, the Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam and
the Venkateswara Temple in Tirumala, Tirupati.
Common Features of All Schools of Vedanta
In spite of the obvious differences that exist between all the schools of
Vedanta, there are fundamental similarities and common features between
them. They are as follows:
- Brahman is the eternal, unchanging reality and the cause of the
material world.
- The Upanishads are a reliable source of knowledge. Vedanta is the
pursuit of that knowledge, in order to understand Brahman.
- Rebirth is a fact and being steeped in Vedanta is a way to attain
jivan mukthi.
- The Atman is responsible for its own acts and has to experience
karma as a result of these acts.
- The Advaita, Dvaita and Visishtadvaita schools of Vedanta rejected
Buddhism, Jainism and many other Vedantic schools as well.